Indian History Key Events, Dynasties & Freedom Movement
Ancient India Indus Valley · Vedic Period · Buddhism · Jainism
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Indus Valley Civilization: 3000 BC – 1500 BC (also cited as 2500–1800 BC). Main cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal. Key sites: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat), Banwali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Alamgirpur (Ganga-Yamuna Doab).
Features: Town planning, drainage system, double-storeyed dwellings, cotton production, agriculture, hunting, fishing.
Vedic Period
| Period | Timeline | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Early Vedic | 1500 BC – 1000 BC | – |
| Later Vedic | 1000 BC – 700 BC | Brahmanical Age |
Four Vedas: Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda
Two Great Epics: Mahabharata (by Ved Vyas), Ramayana (by Maharishi Valmiki)
Two Great Epics: Mahabharata (by Ved Vyas), Ramayana (by Maharishi Valmiki)
Buddhism & Jainism
Buddhism: Founder — Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). Born at Lumbini (Nepal), enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, first sermon at Sarnath, died at Kusinagar. Sects: Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayan.
Jainism: Founder — Rishabha; peak under Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), born at Kundagrama (540 BC), died at Pawapuri. Sects: Digambars, Shwetambara.
Important Empires & Dynasties
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| Empire / Dynasty | Period | Prominent Rulers / Features |
|---|---|---|
| Magadha Empire | ~542 BC | Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Shishunaga, Nanda |
| Mauryan Dynasty | 321–232 BC | Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka (273–232 BC), Kalinga War (261 BC) |
| Gupta Dynasty (Golden Age) | AD 320–550 | Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II |
| Harshavardhana | AD 606–647 | Last Hindu king of North India |
| Rajputs | AD 650–1200 | Prithvi Raj Chauhan, Jaichand Rathore |
| Chalukyas | AD 550–642 | Pulkeshin I and II |
| Cholas | – | Rajaraja-I, Rajendra Chola, Rajendra III |
| Rashtrakutas | AD 753–973 | Krishna I, Amogha Varsha |
| Yadavas | AD 1191–1318 | Ramachandra, Singhana |
| Vijayanagar Empire | AD 1336–1646 | Krishnadevaraya |
Medieval India — Delhi Sultanate & Mughals
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| Dynasty | Period | Founder | Key Rulers & Events |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave Dynasty | AD 1206–1290 | Qutub-ud-din Aibak | Iltutmish, Razia Sultana (only Muslim woman ruler) |
| Khilji Dynasty | AD 1290–1320 | Jalal-ud-din Khilji | Alaud-din Khilji |
| Tughlak Dynasty | AD 1320–1414 | Ghiasuddin Tughlak | Ibn Batuta visited India (1333) |
| Lodhi Dynasty | AD 1451–1526 | Bahlol Lodhi | Sikander Lodhi, Ibrahim Lodhi |
| Mughal Dynasty | 1526–1857 | Babur | Longest reigning dynasty |
Mughal Rulers — Key Facts
| Ruler | Reign | Notable |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | Wrote Tuzuk-i-Babri; defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat (1526); defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa (1527) |
| Humayun | 1530–1540 | Defeated by Sher Shah at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540); died in accident (1556) |
| Sher Shah Suri | 1540–1545 | Introduced Rupia coin, Grand Trunk Road, military reforms, standard weights |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | Most successful Mughal; Din-e-Ilahi; tutor Bairam Khan |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Married Nur Jahan; Sir Thomas Roe visited (1615) |
| Shahjahan | 1627–1658 | Built Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid |
| Aurangzeb | 1659–1707 | Ruled 50 years; executed Guru Teg Bahadur; Khalsa formed by Guru Gobind Singh |
British Rule & Freedom Movement
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| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1857 | First War of Independence (Mutiny of Sepoys); Mangal Pande killed two Britishers at Barrackpore |
| 1858 | Government of India Act — direct governance by British crown |
| 1885 | Formation of Indian National Congress by A.O. Hume; first session Bombay under W.C. Bonnerjee |
| 1905 | Partition of Bengal; Swadeshi Movement launched |
| 1906 | Formation of Muslim League by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca |
| 1907 | Surat session — Congress split into Moderates and Extremists |
| 1911 | Capital shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi (by Lutyens) |
| 1916 | Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League; Home Rule League by Annie Besant |
| 1917 | Champaran Satyagraha by Mahatma Gandhi (first satyagraha in India) |
| 1919 | Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh massacre (April 13) by General O'Dyer |
| 1920 | Khilafat Movement; Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi |
| 1922 | Chauri Chaura incident; Gandhi withdrew NCM; Swaraj Party formed by Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das |
| 1929 | Purna Swaraj resolution at Lahore session under Jawaharlal Nehru |
| 1930 | Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (April 6) |
| 1942 | Quit India Movement (August 8); 'Do or Die' call |
| 1947 | Mountbatten Plan (June 3); Independence and Partition (August 15) |
| 1948 | Mahatma Gandhi assassinated (January 30) |
| 1950 | India became Republic (January 26) |
Important Battles in Indian History
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| Year | Battle | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 326 BC | Battle of Hydaspas | Alexander defeated Porus |
| 261 BC | Kalinga War | Ashoka defeated Kalinga |
| 1191 | First Battle of Tarain | Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammad Ghori |
| 1192 | Second Battle of Tarain | Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan |
| 1526 | First Battle of Panipat | Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi |
| 1527 | Battle of Khanua | Babur defeated Rana Sanga |
| 1556 | Second Battle of Panipat | Bairam Khan (Akbar) defeated Hemu |
| 1576 | Battle of Haldighati | Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap |
| 1757 | Battle of Plassey | English (Robert Clive) defeated Siraj-ud-daula |
| 1764 | Battle of Buxar | English defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daula, Shah Alam |
| 1761 | Third Battle of Panipat | Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated Marathas |
| 1799 | Fourth Anglo Mysore War | Tipu Sultan defeated and killed |
Important Visitors to India
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| Visitor | King / Court | Notable Work |
|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes (Greek) | Chandragupta Maurya | – |
| Fahien (Chinese) | Chandragupta II | – |
| Huen Tsang (Chinese) | Harshavardhan | – |
| Al-Beruni | Mahmud of Gazni | Wrote Tariq-i-Hind (Kitab-i-Hind) |
| Ibn Batuta | Muhammed bin Tuglak | African traveller, visited 1333 |
| Amir Khusro | Balban, Alauddin Khilji, Muhammed bin Tuglak | – |
| Sir Thomas Roe | Jahangir | Ambassador of King James of England (1615) |
| Abul Fazal | Akbar | Wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama |
Science Branches, Discoveries, Inventions, Human Body
Branches of Science
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| Branch | Study Area |
|---|---|
| Acoustics | Sound and sound waves |
| Aeronautics | Activities of flying |
| Agronomy | Production of crops and soil management |
| Anatomy | Dissectional learning of animal and human body |
| Anthropology | Origin, cultural and physical development of man |
| Archaeology | Study of material remains of past as proofs |
| Astronautics | Space vehicles and travelling in space |
| Astronomy | Planets (heavenly bodies) |
| Biology | Science of living organisms |
| Botany | Plants |
| Cardiology | Heart and related diseases |
| Ceramics | Manufacturing of clay objects |
| Cosmology | Universe |
| Cryogenics | Studying effects of low temperature |
| Cytology | Structure and function of cells |
| Dermatology | Skin |
| Ecology | Organisms and environment relationship |
| Entomology | Insects |
| Genetics | Heredity and its laws |
| Geology | Earth's (chemical and physical) structure |
| Gerontology | Ageing process, problems and diseases |
| Gynaecology | Female diseases of reproductive system |
| Haematology | Blood and related disorders |
| Immunology | Body's immune system |
| Nephrology | Kidney |
| Ornithology | Birds |
| Orthopaedics | Human skeletal system |
| Osteology | Study of bones |
| Paediatrics | Child diseases |
| Palaeontology | Fossils and ancient life-forms |
| Pathology | Mechanisms and manifestation of diseases |
| Pharmacology | Drugs and their effects on the body |
| Physiology | Life processes of various organs of living beings |
| Psychiatry | Mental disorders |
| Seismology | Earthquakes |
| Toxicology | Toxic substances and poisons |
| Zoology | Animal life |
| Zymology | Fermentation process |
Units of Measurement
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| Unit | Measures |
|---|---|
| Ampere | Electric current |
| Angstrom | Wavelength of light |
| Bar | Atmospheric pressure |
| Calorie | Quantity of heat |
| Candela | Luminous intensity |
| Coulomb | Electric charge |
| Decibel | Sound level |
| Dyne | Force |
| Erg | Work |
| Fathom | Depth of water |
| Faraday | Electric charge (electrolysis) = 96,500 coulomb |
| Gauss | Magnetic induction / Magnetic flux density |
| Henry | Inductance |
| Hertz | Frequency |
| Horsepower | Power |
| Joule | Work or Energy |
| Kelvin | Temperature (SI unit) |
| Light year | Distance (light travels in one year at 2,97,600 km) |
| Newton | Force (SI unit) |
| Ohm | Electrical resistance |
| Pascal | Pressure |
| Poise | Viscosity |
| Volt | Electrical potential |
| Watt | Power |
Inventions & Medical Discoveries
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Medical Discoveries
| Discovery | Discovered by |
|---|---|
| Penicillin | Alexander Fleming |
| Aspirin | Felix Hoffmann |
| Blood circulation | William Harvey |
| Blood group | K. Landsteiner |
| Cholera germ | Robert Koch |
| ECG | Willem Einthoven |
| Heart transplant surgery | Christian Barnard |
| Malaria germs | A. Laveran |
| Ultrasound | Ian Donald |
Vaccines
| Vaccine | Discovered by |
|---|---|
| Smallpox | Edward Jenner |
| Cholera, Rabies | Louis Pasteur |
| TB vaccine | Leon Calmette & Camille Guerin |
| Polio vaccine | Jonas E. Salk |
Scientific Inventions
| Invention | Inventor |
|---|---|
| Aeroplane | Wright Brothers |
| Bicycle | K. Macmillan |
| Computer | Charles Babbage |
| Diesel engine | Rudolf Diesel |
| Dynamite | Alfred Nobel |
| Dynamo | Michael Faraday |
| Electric lamp | Thomas Alva Edison |
| Gramophone | Thomas Alva Edison |
| Jet engine | Sir Frank Whittle |
| Microphone | David Hughes |
| Microscope | Z. Jansen |
| Radium | Marie and Pierre Curie |
| Steam engine (condenser) | James Watt |
| Telephone | Alexander Graham Bell |
| Television | John Logie Baird |
| Thermometer | Galileo Galilei |
| X-ray | Wilhelm Roentgen |
Scientific Instruments
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| Instrument | Function |
|---|---|
| Ammeter | Measuring strength of electric current |
| Barometer | Measuring atmospheric pressure |
| Calorimeter | Measuring quantities of heat |
| Cardiograph (ECG) | Measuring movements of the heart |
| Dynamo | Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy |
| Electroencephalograph (EEG) | Records and interprets electrical waves of the brain |
| Endoscope | Examines internal organs of the body |
| Fathometer | Measuring depth of the ocean |
| Galvanometer | Measuring the electric current |
| Hydrometer | Measuring the relative density of liquids |
| Hygrometer | Measuring the level of humidity in the atmosphere |
| Lactometer | Measuring the relative density of milk to determine purity |
| Manometer | Measuring the pressure of gases |
| Microscope | Obtaining a magnified view of small objects |
| Periscope | Viewing objects above sea level (used in submarines) |
| Polygraph | Recording changes in physiological processes; lie detector |
| Pyrometer | Measuring very high temperature |
| Sphygmomanometer | Measuring blood pressure |
| Stethoscope | Hear and analyze heart and lung sounds |
| Telescope | Viewing distant objects in space |
| Viscometer | Measuring the viscosity of liquid |
| Voltmeter | Measuring electric potential difference between two points |
| Wattmeter | Measuring the power of an electric circuit |
Human Body, Vitamins & Diseases
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Key Facts: Blood ~5 litres | Blood = Plasma + RBC + WBC | RBC contains haemoglobin (iron = red colour) | WBC fights infection | Blood groups: A, B, AB (universal recipient), O (universal donor) | 206 bones in adult | Largest bone: Femur (thigh) | Shortest bone: Stirrup (middle ear) | Largest organ: Skin | Heart beat: 72 bpm (adult males) | Largest gland: Liver | Master gland: Pituitary
Vitamins, Sources & Deficiency Diseases
| Vitamin | Main Source | Deficiency Disease |
|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A | Milk, carrot, egg, animal fat | Night blindness |
| Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) | Cereals, pulses, carrots | Beriberi |
| Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) | Liver, kidney, milk | Chilosis, dermatitis |
| Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) | Yeast, cereals, liver | Anaemia |
| Folic Acid | Green leafy vegetables, meat, egg | Anaemia |
| Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) | Milk, liver, meat | Pernicious anaemia |
| Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | Lemons, oranges, fresh fruits | Scurvy, sore mouth and gums bleeding |
| Vitamin D (Calciferol) | Dairy products, sun rays, eggs | Rickets in children, osteomalacia |
| Vitamin E (Tocopherol) | Milk, soyabeans, egg yolk | Reproduction interference, menstrual irregularities |
| Vitamin K (Menadione) | Fish, peas and green vegetables | Delayed clotting of blood |
Diseases & Affected Parts
| Disease | Cause | Affected Part |
|---|---|---|
| Anaemia | Deficiency of haemoglobin | – |
| AIDS | Virus | Weakness in immune system |
| Asthma | Allergens | Lungs |
| Diabetes | Less production of insulin | Pancreas and blood |
| Diphtheria | Bacteria | Throat |
| Glaucoma | High pressure in the eyes | Eyes |
| Goitre | Deficiency of iodine | Throat |
| Hepatitis | Virus (mainly) | Jaundice |
| Malaria | Plasmodium | – |
| Polio | Virus | Legs |
| Rheumatism | Streptococcus bacteria | Joints |
| Tuberculosis | Bacteria | Lungs |
Constitution of India Key Features, Articles & Amendments
Basic Facts & Sources
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Drafted in: 2 years, 11 months and 17 days (Dec 9, 1946 – Nov 26, 1949)
Initial: 395 Articles, 8 Schedules
Current: 444 Articles, 12 Schedules
Adopted: November 26, 1949 (Law Day)
Enforced: January 26, 1950 (Republic Day)
Members signed: 284
Initial: 395 Articles, 8 Schedules
Current: 444 Articles, 12 Schedules
Adopted: November 26, 1949 (Law Day)
Enforced: January 26, 1950 (Republic Day)
Members signed: 284
First Chairman: Sir Sachchidananda Sinha
Permanent Chairman: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Aug 29, 1947)
Constitutional Advisor: B.N. Rau
National Flag Adopted: July 22, 1947
National Anthem: Jan 24, 1950 — Jana Gana Mana (Rabindranath Tagore) — plays in 52 sec
Satyameva Jayate: From Mundaka Upanishad
Permanent Chairman: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Aug 29, 1947)
Constitutional Advisor: B.N. Rau
National Flag Adopted: July 22, 1947
National Anthem: Jan 24, 1950 — Jana Gana Mana (Rabindranath Tagore) — plays in 52 sec
Satyameva Jayate: From Mundaka Upanishad
Sources of the Indian Constitution
| Source | Borrowed Features |
|---|---|
| Government of India Act, 1935 | Centre/State List System, Federal Set-up, centre-state autonomies |
| British Constitution | Parliamentary Privileges, Unitary Citizenship, Rule of Law |
| Australian Constitution | Preamble, Concurrent List, Freedom of trade and commerce |
| American Constitution | Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Impeachment of the President |
| Japanese Constitution | Procedure established by the Law |
| South African Constitution | Amendment clauses |
| Irish Constitution | Directive Principles, Nominations to Rajya Sabha |
| Russian Constitution | Fundamental Duties |
| Canadian Constitution | Federal structure |
| German Constitution | Emergency Provisions |
Fundamental Rights (Part III)
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| Right | Article(s) | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Right to Equality | 14–18 | Equal protection before law; no discrimination; equal opportunities; ban untouchability; abolition of royal titles |
| Right to Freedom | 19–22 | Six freedoms (speech, assembly, association, movement, settlement, profession); protection against ex-post facto laws, double jeopardy, self-incrimination |
| Right against Exploitation | 23–24 | Prohibition of human trafficking and forced labour; prohibition of child labour in hazardous employment |
| Right to Freedom of Religion | 25–28 | Freedom of conscience, manage religious affairs, no taxes for religion, no religious instructions in govt schools |
| Cultural & Educational Rights | 29–30 | Minorities protect language/culture; establish educational institutions |
| Right to Constitutional Remedies | 32 | Writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo-warranto |
Emergency Provisions, Presidents & PMs
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Emergency Provisions
| Type | Article | Details |
|---|---|---|
| National Emergency | Article 352 | Security threatened by war, external aggression, or internal armed rebellion |
| President's Rule | Article 356 | Constitutional machinery failure in States; first in Punjab (June 20, 1951) |
| Financial Emergency | Article 360 | Financial ability / credit worthiness threatened |
Presidents of India
| # | Name | Period |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Dr. Rajendra Prasad | Jan 30, 1950 – May 13, 1962 |
| 2 | Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | May 13, 1962 – May 13, 1967 |
| 3 | Zakir Hussain | May 13, 1967 – May 3, 1969 |
| 7 | Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed | Aug 24, 1974 – Feb 11, 1977 |
| 11 | Ramaswamy Venkataraman | Jul 25, 1987 – Jul 25, 1992 |
| 14 | A.P.J. Abdul Kalam | Jul 25, 2002 – Jul 25, 2007 |
| 15 | Smt. Pratibha Patil | Jul 25, 2007 – Jul 25, 2012 |
| 16 | Shri Pranab Mukherjee | Jul 25, 2012 – Jul 25, 2017 |
| 17 | Shri Ram Nath Kovind | Jul 25, 2017 – till date |
Prime Ministers of India
| # | Name | Period | Party |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Jawaharlal Nehru | 15-Aug-47 – 27-May-64 | INC |
| 3 | Lal Bahadur Shastri | 9-Jun-64 – 11-Jan-66 | INC |
| 5 | Indira Gandhi | 24-Jan-66 – 24-Mar-77 | INC |
| 6 | Morarji Desai | 24-Mar-77 – 28-Jul-79 | Janata Party |
| 9 | Rajiv Gandhi | 31-Oct-84 – 2-Dec-89 | INC (Indira) |
| 12 | P.V. Narasimha Rao | 21-Jun-91 – 16-May-96 | INC |
| 16 | Atal Bihari Vajpayee | 19-Mar-98 – 22-May-04 | BJP |
| 17 | Dr. Manmohan Singh | 22-May-04 – 26-May-14 | INC |
| 18 | Narendra Damodardas Modi | 26-May-14 – Incumbent | BJP |
Geography World & India
Solar System, Continents & Oceans
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Planets
| Planet | Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Mercury | Closest to the Sun; fastest to revolve |
| Venus | Brightest and hottest planet |
| Earth | Only known planet with life; 3rd from Sun; 70% water, 30% land |
| Mars | Red planet; explored for life similarities with Earth |
| Jupiter | Largest planet |
| Saturn | System of rings |
| Pluto | Discarded as planet (dwarf planet) |
Earth facts: Mean distance from Sun: 1,49,407,000 km | Revolution: 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min, 45.51 sec | Rotation: 23 hrs 56 min 4.09 sec | Shape: Oblate spheroid | Moon first visited: July 20, 1969 (Neil Armstrong)
Atmosphere Layers
| Layer | Height |
|---|---|
| Troposphere | Up to 15 km |
| Stratosphere | 15–50 km (Ozone layer: 12–30 km) |
| Mesosphere | 50–80 km |
| Ionosphere | 80–400 km (Radio communication) |
Continents
| Continent | Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Asia | Largest (~30% land, 59% population) |
| Africa | Largest desert — Sahara |
| Antarctica | Covered with ice (coldest); island continent |
| Europe | Westernmost peninsula of Eurasia |
| Oceania (Australia) | Smallest continent; island continent |
Oceans
| Ocean | Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Pacific | Largest; 35.25% of Earth's surface |
| Atlantic | – |
| Indian | – |
| Arctic | – |
| Antarctic | – |
South China Sea has maximum area among all seas.
Geographical Facts of India
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Location: Northern Hemisphere | 8°4'–37°6' N, 68°7'–97°25' E | Covers 2.4% of Earth's surface | Land Area: 32,87,263 sq.km | East-West: 2,933 km | North-South: 3,214 km | Coastline (mainland): ~6,300 km | Total Coastline (with islands): 7,516.6 km
Neighbours: West: Pakistan | South: Sri Lanka | North: Nepal, China | East: Bangladesh, Myanmar
Longest River: Ganga (2,640 km) | Major Rivers: Indus, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Tapti, Cauvery, Mahanadi | Largest Delta: Sundarbans | Oldest Mountain Range: Aravallis
Soils of India
| Soil Type | Major Areas | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Black soils | Maharashtra, AP, Tamil Nadu, MP (W), Gujarat | Most suitable for cotton cultivation |
| Laterite soils | AP, Deccan, Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Mysore | Originated from weathering |
| Alluvial soils | Haryana, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, UP | Very fertile; ~25% of Indian soil |
| Red soils | MP, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha | Good for coarse grains and pulses; high iron content |
Agricultural Revolutions
| Revolution | Year | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Green Revolution | 1967–68 | Agricultural productivity |
| White Revolution | 1970 | Operation Flood — milk production |
| Yellow Revolution | – | Oil seed production |
| Blue Revolution | – | Fisheries |
World Rivers & Countries
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Important Rivers of the World
| River | Length (km) | Country / Continent |
|---|---|---|
| Nile | 6,690 | Egypt, Africa (longest river) |
| Amazon | 6,570 | Brazil, South America (largest by volume) |
| Mississippi-Missouri | 6,020 | USA, North America |
| Yangtze-Kiang | 5,980 | China, Asia |
| Hwang Ho | 4,840 | China, Asia |
| Congo | 4,800 | Zaire, Africa |
| Volga | 3,700 | Russia, Asia |
| Indus | 3,180 | India and Pakistan, Asia |
| Brahmaputra | 2,960 | India, Asia |
Countries, Capitals & Currencies (Selected)
| Country | Capital | Currency | Continent |
|---|---|---|---|
| Afghanistan | Kabul | Afghani | Asia |
| Australia | Canberra | Australian Dollar | Australia |
| Bangladesh | Dhaka | Taka | Asia |
| Brazil | Brasilia | Cruzeiro Real | South America |
| China | Beijing | Renminbi Yuan | Asia |
| France | Paris | Euro | Europe |
| Germany | Berlin | Euro | Europe |
| India | New Delhi | Indian Rupee | Asia |
| Japan | Tokyo | Yen | Asia |
| Nepal | Kathmandu | Nepalese Rupee | Asia |
| Pakistan | Islamabad | Pakistan Rupee | Asia |
| Russia | Moscow | Rouble | Asia/Europe |
| Saudi Arabia | Riyadh | Saudi Arabian Riyal | Asia |
| UK | London | Pound Sterling | Europe |
| USA | Washington, DC | US Dollar | North America |
Sports Olympics, Trophies & Terms
Olympic Games
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Origin: Ancient Greece | Father of Modern Olympics: Baron Pierre de Coubertin
First Modern Olympics: 1896, Athens, Greece | Winter Olympics Started: 1924, France
Frequency: Every 4 years | Motto: 'Citius, Altius, Fortius' — Swifter, Higher, Stronger
Olympic Flag: White with five intertwined rings representing five continents
India hosting: India has never hosted Olympic Games
Tokyo 2020: Postponed to 2021 due to COVID-19; motto 'Discover Tomorrow'; mascot Miraitowa
First Modern Olympics: 1896, Athens, Greece | Winter Olympics Started: 1924, France
Frequency: Every 4 years | Motto: 'Citius, Altius, Fortius' — Swifter, Higher, Stronger
Olympic Flag: White with five intertwined rings representing five continents
India hosting: India has never hosted Olympic Games
Tokyo 2020: Postponed to 2021 due to COVID-19; motto 'Discover Tomorrow'; mascot Miraitowa
Other Major Sports Festivals
| Event | Details |
|---|---|
| Commonwealth Games | First held 1930 at Canada; every 4 years (midway between Olympics) |
| Asian Games | First held 1951 at New Delhi; J.L. Nehru instrumental; every 4 years |
| 2019 South Asian Games | Held in Kathmandu, Pokhara, Janakpur (Nepal); India won 312 medals (174 gold) |
Cups, Trophies & Sports Terms
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International Cups & Trophies
| Cup / Trophy | Sport |
|---|---|
| Davis Cup (M) / Federation Cup (W) | Lawn Tennis |
| Wimbledon Trophy | Lawn Tennis |
| Thomas Cup (M) / Uber Cup (W) | Badminton |
| Champions Trophy / Sultan Azlan Shah Cup | Hockey |
| Walker Cup / Ryder Cup / Canada Cup | Golf |
| William Jones Cup | Basketball |
| Champions League | Football |
National Cups (India)
| Cup / Trophy | Sport |
|---|---|
| Duleep / Ranji / Irani / Vijay Hazare Trophy | Cricket |
| Durand / Santosh / Subroto / Rovers Cup | Football |
| Rangaswami / Nehru / Aga Khan / Beighton / Dhyan Chand | Hockey |
| Ezar Cup | Polo |
Important Terms in Sports
| Sport | Terms |
|---|---|
| Badminton | Luv, deuce, drop, smash, double touch |
| Basketball | Pivot, dribble, basket, block, held ball |
| Billiards | Spider, baulk, cue, scratch, cannon |
| Boxing | Hook, rounds, punch, jab, knockout, flyweight, middleweight, heavyweight |
| Chess | Knight, king, Sicilian defence, gambit, checkmate, rook, stalemate, queen, bishop, pawn |
| Cricket | Gully, hat-trick, pull, beamer, hook, googly, flick, follow-on, maiden, declare |
| Golf | Tee, birdie, club, course, iron, eagle, links, caddie, putt, hole, bogey |
| Hockey | Centre, penalty-stroke, free-hit, foul, carry, stick, corner, dribble, trapping |
| Table Tennis | Deuce, drop, spin, smash, let |
| Tennis | Grand slam, lob, ace, passing shot, top-spin, forehand, deuce, slice |
Economics Key Concepts, Banking, Stock Market
Economic Terms & Concepts
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| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Sectors | Agriculture (Primary), Industry (Secondary), Service (Tertiary) |
| Demand | Ability to purchase + willingness to purchase; affected by income, consumer choice, price |
| Ceteris Paribus | Assumption that all other factors remain constant when studying a specific factor's effect |
| Equilibrium Price | Price where demand and supply are equal (also called market price) |
| Monopoly | Single seller controls entire supply; no close substitutes; no perfect substitutes |
| Oligopoly | Few firms control large portion of market; interdependent decisions |
| Monopsony | Single buyer (frequently the government) |
| Fiscal Policy | Use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy |
| Monetary Policy | Central bank (RBI) manages money supply and interest rates |
| MPC | MPC + MPS = 1 (MPS = marginal propensity to save) |
| GNP | GDP + Net foreign income from abroad |
| NNP | GNP − Depreciation; National Income at market prices |
| NDP | GDP − Depreciation |
| NI at Factor Cost | National Income at market prices − Net indirect taxes |
| Per Capita Income | Total National Income / Total Population |
| Direct Taxes | Corporate Tax, Income Tax, Wealth Tax, Capital Gains Tax, Securities Transaction Tax |
| Indirect Taxes | GST (CGST, SGST, IGST), Customs Duty, Excise Duty, VAT (subsumed under GST) |
Indian Banking & Stock Market
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RBI: Central bank; formed April 1, 1935; Mumbai HQ; nationalized Jan 1, 1949
SBI: Largest commercial bank; formed July 1, 1955; 18th in global banking
Bank Rate: Standard rate at which RBI buys/rediscounts bills of exchange/commercial papers
SBI: Largest commercial bank; formed July 1, 1955; 18th in global banking
Bank Rate: Standard rate at which RBI buys/rediscounts bills of exchange/commercial papers
Stock Market
| Term | Details |
|---|---|
| BSE | Bombay Stock Exchange; Asia's oldest; formed 1875; 30 companies on BSE SENSEX |
| NSE | National Stock Exchange; established 1992; recognized 1993; fully demutualized |
| SENSEX | Weighted average of 30 select company stock prices listed on BSE |
| NIFTY-50 | Index of 50 major companies on NSE |
| Large Cap | ₹10,000+ crore market cap |
| Mid Cap | ₹2,000–10,000 crore market cap |
| Small Cap | <₹2,000 crore market cap |
| Primary Market | New issues / IPOs |
| Secondary Market | Existing securities |
India's GDP (FY 2020–21): ₹134.09 lakh crore ($2.62 trillion); contracted 8% due to COVID-19; 5th largest globally
Culture of India Literature, Dance, Music, Architecture
Ancient Indian Literature
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| Text | Details |
|---|---|
| Rig Veda | Oldest text; contains hymns to nature and deities; preserved orally for centuries |
| Sam Veda | Contains melodic content for chanting the Rig Vedic hymns |
| Yajur Veda | Contains prose mantras for rituals |
| Atharva Veda | Religious and folk traditions; contains charms, spells, hymns |
| Upanishads | Called Vedanta (end of Vedas); philosophical texts exploring ultimate reality |
| Ramayana | 7 books; composed before Mahabharata; legends added over time |
| Mahabharata | Epic poem; 6 times longer than Iliad and Odyssey combined |
| Tolkappiyam | Tamil; oldest work in Tamil literature; earliest extant Tamil grammar |
| Arthashastra | Kautilya (Chanakya); treatise on statecraft, economic policy, military strategy |
| Natyashastra | Earliest and most respected text on performing arts |
Classical & Folk Dances
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Classical Dances of India
| Dance Form | Origin / Region | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Bharatnatyam | Tamil Nadu | Oldest classical dance; performed on Carnatic music; associated with Gods and Goddesses |
| Kathakali | Kerala | Based on themes from epics and Puranas; Rajasuya and Kalamandalam famous troupes |
| Kathak | Uttar Pradesh | Bollywood style; storytelling through dance; one of six classical Indian dance forms |
| Manipuri | Manipur | Based on Vaishnava themes; famous for Raslila dance |
| Mohiniyattam | Kerala | Solo dance by women; graceful sensuous dance |
| Odissi | Odisha | Known as 'mobile sculpture'; based on Jayadev's Gita Govinda; themes from Lord Krishna's life |
| Sattriya | Assam | Classical dance form |
| Kuchipudi | Andhra Pradesh | One of ten major Indian classical dances |
Folk Dances of India
| Dance | State |
|---|---|
| Bhangra / Giddha | Punjab |
| Garba / Dandiya | Gujarat |
| Ghoomar | Rajasthan |
| Rouf | Kashmir |
| Bihu | Assam |
| Lavani | Maharashtra |
| Chhau | Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand |
| Dollu Kunitha | Karnataka |
| Fugdi | Goa |
Architecture of India
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| Monument / Style | Period | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Cave Temples | Ancient | Practical accommodation; often carved from cliff faces |
| Mauryan Period | 322–185 BC | Chaityas (prayer halls), Viharas (residences), Stupas (relic mounds); used stone and wood |
| Sanchi Stupa | – | Most famous; remnants of Buddhism in India |
| Ajanta Caves | – | 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments; paintings and sculptures |
| Ellora Caves | – | Buddhist, Hindu, Jain monuments; Kailasa Temple |
| Sun Temple Konark | – | UNESCO World Heritage Site |
| Mahabalipuram | – | Pallava dynasty; Shore Temple, rock-cut temples, rathas |
| Khajuraho | – | Hindu and Jain temples; Nagara style |
| Taj Mahal | Mughal | Agra; built by Shah Jahan |
| Red Fort | Mughal | Delhi; built by Shah Jahan |
| Jama Masjid | Mughal | Delhi; built by Shah Jahan |
| Nalanda, Taxila, Vikramashila | – | Notable institutions built of brick and stone |
Miscellaneous GK Organizations, Awards & Nobel Prizes
International Organizations
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| Organization | Headquarters | Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| United Nations (UN) | New York | Formed Oct 24, 1945; 193 members; 5 permanent SC members: China, UK, USA, Russia, France |
| UNESCO | Paris | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
| WHO | Geneva | World Health Organization |
| ILO | Geneva | International Labour Organization |
| FAO | Rome | Food and Agricultural Organization |
| IMF | Washington DC | International Monetary Fund; formed 1944; 190 members |
| World Bank (IBRD) | Washington DC | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; 189 members |
| WTO | Geneva | World Trade Organization (replaced GATT Jan 1, 1995) |
| UNICEF | New York | United Nations Children's Emergency Fund |
| IAEA | Vienna | International Atomic Energy Agency |
| NATO | Brussels | North Atlantic Treaty Organization; formed April 4, 1949; 29 members |
| SAARC | Kathmandu | South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation; formed Dec 8, 1985; 8 members |
| OPEC | Vienna | Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; formed Sept 14, 1960 |
| EU | Brussels | European Union; formed 1957; 27 members (UK left 2020) |
| ASEAN | Jakarta | Association of South East Asian Nations; formed Aug 9, 1967 |
| Red Cross | Geneva | Formed 1863 by J.H. Durant; Red Cross Day: May 8 |
| Interpol | Lyons, France | International Police Organization; formed 1923; 190 member countries |
| Amnesty International | London | Formed May 28, 1961 by Peter Berenson |
Nobel Prizes (2020) & Bharat Ratna
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Nobel Prizes 2020
| Category | Winner(s) |
|---|---|
| Physics | Roger Penrose (black hole formation); Reinhard Genzel & Andrea Ghez (supermassive compact object) |
| Chemistry | Emmanuelle Charpentier & Jennifer A. Doudna (CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors) |
| Literature | Louise Glück (unmistakable poetic voice) |
| Peace | World Food Programme (WFP) |
| Economic Sciences | Paul R. Milgrom & Robert B. Wilson (auction theory and new auction formats) |
Bharat Ratna Awardees (Selected)
| Name | Year | Field / Role |
|---|---|---|
| Dr. Rajendra Prasad | 1954 | First President |
| Sir C.V. Raman | 1954 | Physicist, Nobel Prize Winner (1930) |
| Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | 1954 | Philosopher, First VP, Second President |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | 1955 | First Prime Minister |
| Lal Bahadur Shastri | 1966 | Second Prime Minister (posthumous) |
| Indira Gandhi | 1971 | Third Prime Minister |
| Mother Teresa | 1980 | Catholic nun, Missionaries of Charity |
| B.R. Ambedkar | 1990 | Chief architect of Constitution (posthumous) |
| Nelson Mandela | 1990 | Anti-Apartheid movement leader |
| Rajiv Gandhi | 1991 | Sixth Prime Minister (posthumous) |
| Vallabhbhai Patel | 1991 | First Home Minister (posthumous) |
| A.P.J. Abdul Kalam | 1997 | Aeronautical Engineer, 11th President |
| Sachin Tendulkar | 2013 | First sportsperson and youngest recipient |
| Atal Bihari Vajpayee | 2014 | Former Prime Minister |
| Pranab Mukherjee | 2019 | Former President |